Any magistrate could obstruct ("veto") an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of magisterial powers. In addition, they often spoke publicly about the balances available in the treasury. [34], they were independent of all other powerful magistrates, Executive magistrates of the Roman Kingdom, Executive magistrates of the Roman Republic, Executive magistrates of the Roman Empire, Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius, Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu, The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero, What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_magistrate&oldid=949786949, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, E. S. Gruen, "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974), A. Lintott, "The Constitution of the Roman Republic" (Oxford University Press, 1999), This page was last edited on 8 April 2020, at 14:39. [21] Since praetors held imperium powers, they could command an army. During the period of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman King was the principal executive magistrate. While they had a curule chair, they did not have lictors, and thus they had no power of coercion. A magistrate was required to look for omens while presiding over a legislative or senate meeting, and while preparing for a war. Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, and often assisted the higher magistrates. The most significant constitutional power that a magistrate could hold was that of "Command" (Imperium), which was held only by consuls and praetors. [7] The traditional magistracies that survived the fall of the republic were the consulship, praetorship, plebeian tribunate, aedileship, quaestorship, and military tribunate. [30] Any expenditure of public funds, by either a curule aedile or a plebeian aedile, had to be authorized by the senate. [43] Often, the dictator functioned principally as the master of the infantry (and thus the legions), while the Master of the Horse (as the name implies) functioned as the master of the cavalry. [27] The emperor's degree of Proconsular power gave him authority over all of Rome's military governors, and thus, over most of the Roman army. Any magistrate could obstruct (veto) an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of magisterial powers. The executive magistrates of the Roman Empire were elected individuals of the ancient Roman Empire. The executive magistrates of the Roman Kingdom were elected officials of the ancient Roman Kingdom. An additional check over a magistrate's power was that of Provincia, which required a division of responsibilities. This ranking, however, was solely a result of their prestige, rather than any real power they had. The powers of an emperor (his imperium) existed, in theory at least, by virtue of his legal standing. Magistrates of the republic were elected by the people of Rome, and were each vested with a degree of power called "major powers" (maior potestas). [13] If one did not comply with the orders of a Plebeian Tribune, the Tribune could interpose the sacrosanctity of his person[14] (intercessio) to physically stop that particular action. Since the censorship was the most prestigious of all offices, usually only former consuls were elected to it. In 217 BC, a law was passed that gave the popular assemblies the right to nominate dictators. During this period, the dictator's power over the Roman government was absolute, as they were not checked by any institution or magistrate. Since the office could be easily abused (as a result of its power over every ordinary citizen), only former consuls (usually patrician consuls) were elected to the office. Once a magistrate's annual term in office expired, he had to wait ten years before serving in that office again. [35] Under Augustus, the Aediles lost control over the grain supply to a board of commissioners. If this obstruction occurred between two magistrates of equal rank, such as two praetors, then it was called par potestas (negation of powers). [7] Only a magistrate with imperium could wear a bordered toga, or be awarded a triumph. Any act by the censor that resulted in an expenditure of public money required the approval of the senate.[18]. [1] Dictators had more "major powers" than any other magistrate, and thus they outranked all other magistrates; but were originally intended only to be a temporary tool for times of state emergency. The texts of enacted statutes and decrees of the Roman Senate were deposited in the treasury under the supervision of the quaestors. [30] The emperor also had the power to interpret laws and to set precedents. in 494 B.C. [29] The Plebeian Council (principal popular assembly), under the presidency of a plebeian tribune, elected the two plebeian aediles. They had the power over public games and shows, and over the markets. [1][2] His powers rested on law and legal precedent, and he could only receive these powers through the political process of an election. In time, however, the differences between the plebeian aediles and the curule aediles disappeared. first plebeian elected in 422 (?) While components of public administration were delegated to other magistrates, the management of the government was under the ultimate authority of the consul. In this case, the citizen would cry "provoco ad populum", which required the magistrate to wait for a tribune to intervene, and make a ruling. The new king then took the auspices (a ritual search for omens from the Gods), and was vested with legal authority (imperium) by the popular assembly.[12]. [20] Other praetors had foreign affairs-related responsibilities, and often acted as governors of the provinces. [2] Sometimes he submitted his decrees to either the popular assembly or to the senate for a ceremonial ratification, but a rejection did not prevent the enactment of a decree. The executive magistrates of the Roman Republic were officials of the ancient Roman Republic (c. 510 BC – 44 BC), elected by the People of Rome. [40] Ordinary magistrates (such as consuls and praetors) retained their offices, but lost their independence and became agents of the dictator. [1][2] When the king died, his power reverted to the Roman Senate, which then chose an Interrex to facilitate the election of a new king. [28] The office was not on the cursus honorum, and therefore did not mark the beginning of a political career. [24] Often the Dictator resigned his office as soon as the matter that caused his appointment was resolved. [28] They also had the power to repair and preserve temples, sewers and aqueducts, to maintain public records, and to issue edicts. The Tribal Assembly, while under the presidency of a higher magistrate (either a consul or praetor), elected the two curule aediles. [32] The treasury was a repository for documents, as well as for money. In ancient Rome, a magistratus was one of the highest ranking government officers, and possessed both judicial and executive powers. This ranking flipped every month, between the two consuls. Ordinary magistrates (magistratus) were divided into several ranks according to their role and the power they wielded: censors, consuls (who functioned as the regular head of state), praetors, curule aediles, and finally quaestor. Politics and government; Tax collection. [16], Censors could enroll citizens in the senate, or purge them from the senate. [18], The praetors administered civil law and commanded provincial armies,[20] and, eventually, began to act as chief judges over the courts. [42] A dictator's power was equivalent to that of the power of the two consuls exercised conjointly, without any checks on their power by any other organ of government. [45], Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic, The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero, What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us, Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius, Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Executive_magistrates_of_the_Roman_Republic&oldid=947090545, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Gruen, E. S. "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974), This page was last edited on 24 March 2020, at 07:16. John Paul Adams, CSUN Each dictator appointed a Master of the Horse (magister equitum or Master of the Knights), to serve as his most senior lieutenant. [33] The plebeian aedile functioned as the tribune's assistant, and often performed similar duties as did the curule aediles (discussed above). Theoretically, the senate elected each new emperor; in practice each emperor chose his own successor, though the choice was often overruled by the army or civil war. first plebeians in 300 B.C. [9] The king also had two Quaestors as general assistants, while several other officers assisted the king during treason cases. When a magistrate believed that he had witnessed such an omen, he usually had a priest (augur) interpret the omen. Histoire du cens jusqu'à la fin de la République romaine. It wasn't until after they lost the power to maintain order in the city, however, that they truly became powerless, and the office disappeared entirely during the 3rd century. [but, in the next 100 years, only 32 families provided 90 plebeian consuls, originally served during the time between the death of one king and the qualification of another, later appointed to conduct elections for consul or dictator. [41] For a dictator to be appointed, the Roman Senate had to pass a decree (a senatus consultum), authorizing a Roman consul to nominate a dictator, who then took office immediately. Later, a law (one of the Leges Clodiae or "Clodian Laws") allowed a citizen to appeal a censorial nota. By definition, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were technically not magistrates[4] since they were elected only by the plebeians. In addition, they did not have the power to convene the Roman Senate or Roman assemblies. [12] After the nominee was elected by the popular assembly, the senate ratified the election by passing a decree. [6] In theory at least, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of the plebeian tribunes under the old republic) gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, while the proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or proconsuls, under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. elected NOT by the People (Populus) but only by the Plebs, in the. The magistracies that survived the fall of the republic were (by their order of rank per the cursus honorum) the consulship, praetorship, plebeian tribunate, aedileship, quaestorship, and military tribunate. [28] Quaestors were elected by the Tribal Assembly,[28] and the assignment of their responsibilities was settled by lot. [21] Though they technically were not magistrates, the Plebeian Tribunes and the Plebeian Aediles were considered to be the representatives of the people. http://worldcat.org/entity/work/id/22530903 Imperii insignia, sella curulis und fasces : zur Repräsentation römischer Magistrate Open All Close All While the magistrate was in the city of Rome itself, however, he had to completely surrender his imperium, so that liberty (libertas) was maximized. [8] Mark Antony abolished the offices of dictator and Master of the Horse during his Consulship in 44 BC, while the offices of Interrex and Roman censor were abolished shortly thereafter. Priest of Quirinus-Romulus. Aediles had wide-ranging powers over day-to-day affairs inside the city of Rome, and over the maintenance of public order. The office of quaestor was considered the lowest-ranking of all major political offices. [18] Praetors administered civil law, presided over the courts, and commanded provincial armies. [43] The Master of the Horse had constitutional command authority (imperium) equivalent to a praetor, and often, when they authorized the appointment of a dictator, the senate specified who was to be the Master of the Horse. [22] When the Dictator's term ended, constitutional government was restored. As soon as that tribune was no longer present, the act could be completed as if there had never been a veto. [7][16] Once a consul's term ended, he held the honorary title of consulare for the rest of his time in the senate, and had to wait for ten years before standing for re-election to the consulship. Thus, dictatorial appointments were tantamount to a six-month restoration of the monarchy, with the dictator taking the place of the old Roman king. Up until 202 BC, dictators were often appointed to fight plebeian unrest. [28] The emperor also had the authority to carry out a range of duties that, under the republic, had been performed by the Roman censors. [10] While in Rome, all citizens had an absolute protection against Coercion. [2] To prevent this, magistrates used a principle of alteration, assigned responsibilities by lot or seniority, or gave certain magistrates control over certain functions. When the king left the city, an Urban Prefect presided over the city in place of the absent king. [20] Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, and were vested with powers over the markets, and over public games and shows. [6] In theory at least, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of the plebeian tribunes under the old republic) gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, while the proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or Proconsuls, under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. When war broke out, he had the sole power to organize and levy troops, to select leaders for the army, and to conduct the campaign as he saw fit. Texte remanié de: Thèse--Histoire romaine--Université Marc-Bloch de Srasbourg, 1999. [14], Once a magistrate's annual term in office expired, he had to wait ten years before serving in that office again. [8], All magistrates had the power of coercion (coercitio), which was used by magistrates to maintain public order. This is what gave the office its prestige. If the tribune was abroad, the plebeians in Rome could not enforce their oath to kill any individual who harmed or interfered with the tribune. [32] The Praetors also lost a great deal of power, and ultimately had little authority outside of the city. [7], By virtue of his proconsular powers, the emperor held the same grade of military command authority as did the chief magistrates (the Roman consuls and proconsuls) under the republic. During the transition from republic to empire, no office lost more power or prestige than the consulship, which was due, in part, to the fact that the substantive powers of republican Consuls were all transferred to the emperor. [12] The Interrex then formally declared the nominee to be king. [38] A tribune had to assess the situation, and give the magistrate his approval before the magistrate could carry out the action. He was the chief priest, lawgiver, judge, and the sole commander of the army. [5] The most important power was imperium, which was held by consuls (the chief magistrates) and by praetors (the second highest-ranking ordinary magistrate). The Roman magistrates were elected officials in Ancient Rome. [13] Sometimes, the case was brought before the College of tribunes, and sometimes before the Plebeian Council (popular assembly). Such duties included the authority to regulate public morality (Censorship) and to conduct a census. Any resistance against the tribune was considered to be a capital offense. A magistrate's imperium was at its apex while the magistrate was abroad. [34] Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge, taken by the plebeians, to kill any person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. [40][41] The dictator's power over the Roman government was absolute, as they were not checked by any institution or magistrate. While the term "plebeian magistrate" (magistratus plebeii) has been used as an approximation, it is technically a contradiction. Economische politiek. This is why, for example, each consul was accompanied by twelve lictors outside the pomerium or six inside, whereas the dictator (as the Roman King before him) was accompanied by twenty four lictors outside the pomerium or twelve inside. Only Roman citizens (both plebeians and patricians) had the right to confer magisterial powers (potestas) on any individual magistrate. Always a patrician. During the transition from republic to the Roman empire, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the Roman Senate back to the executive (the Roman Emperor). After 202 BC, extreme emergencies were addressed through the passage of the senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate") which suspended civil government, and declared something analogous to martial law. Consuls and Res Publica : holding high office in the Roman Republic. The magistrates (magistratus) were elected by the People of Rome, which consisted of plebeians (commoners) and patricians (aristocrats). [8] If an individual was not of the senatorial class, he could run for one of these offices if he was allowed to run by the emperor, or otherwise, he could be appointed to one of these offices by the emperor. Upon an order by the senate, the consul was responsible for raising and commanding an army. [27] Censors had several other duties as well, including the management of public contracts and the payment of individuals doing contract work for the state. Technically they outranked all other ordinary magistrates (including consuls and praetors). [6] Magistrates with imperium sat in a curule chair, and were attended by lictors (bodyguards) who carried axes called fasces which symbolized the power of the state to punish and to execute. The emperor's tribunician powers gave him power over Rome's civil apparatus,[28][29] as well as the power to preside over, and thus to dominate, the assemblies and the senate. Since the plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were elected by the plebeians (commoners) in the Plebeian Council, rather than by all of the People of Rome (plebeians and the aristocratic patrician class), they were technically not magistrates. [12] The check on the magistrate's power of Coercion was Provocatio, which was an early form of due process (habeas corpus). [1] He was the chief executive, chief priest, chief lawgiver, chief judge, and the sole commander-in-chief of the army. One obvious consequence of this sacrosanctity was the fact that it was considered a capital offense to harm a tribune, to disregard his veto, or to interfere with a tribune. Once the Interrex found a suitable nominee for the kingship, he presented this nominee to the senate for an initial approval. [23] The Dictator then appointed a Master of the Horse to serve as his most senior lieutenant. CONSULS 2, elected annually from 509 B.C.